MetroloPy

Most of the functionality in the MetroloPy package lies in the gummy object which combines the functionality of the Unit_ and Quantity classes for dealing with units, the ummy_ class for first order propagation of uncertainty, and the Distribution class for Monte Carlo propagation of uncertianty. The immy and jummy classes support calculations with complex numbers.

class gummy

class metrolopy.gummy(x, u=0, unit=one, dof=float(‘inf’), k=1, p=None, uunit=None, utype=None, name=None)

A gummy object represents a numerical value with an uncertainty and (or) a unit. They can be used in place of float values in Python expressions and the uncertainty can be propagated with with both first-order and Monte-Carlo methods. Correlations between gummys are tracked. gummys must be real valued; the jummy class is an extension of the gummy class to complex numbers.

gummy parameters

(all parameters except x are optional)

• x: (real number or Distribution ) Either a number representing the value of the gummy or a Distribution instance that represents the probability distribution of the gummy. If x is a Distribution any value given for u or dof will be ignored. The same Distribution instance should never be used as the x parameter for two different gummys, e.g. to define a gummy with a uniform distribution, use:

  >>> g = gummy(UniformDist(center = 2.25, half_width = 0.12))
  

  Note that if x is a number, the uncertainty distribution is assumed to be either a Normal distribution or a shifted and scaled Students’s t distribution depending on the value of the dof parameter. In addition to a float or Distribution, x can be int, numpy.floating, numpy.integer, fraction.Fraction, or mpmath.mpf.

• u: (real number >= 0) A number representing the uncertainty in x. By default u is taken to be the standard (“1-sigma”) uncertainty, however if k or p are specified then u is taken to be the corresponding expanded uncertainty. Also by default, when the uunit parameter is ommitted, u is assumed to have the same units as x. Note that the U property of the newly created gummy will be equal to the value of the u parameter. The u property of the newly created gummy will only be equal to the u parameter if the k, p and uunit parameters are omitted.

• unit: (str or Unit ) The units of the gummy. This may be a Unit object or, more commonly, a string that references a Unit object, e.g. gummy(1,unit='kg') or gummy(3.67,u=0.22,unit='m/s'). The default is the Unit instance one. Spaces or asterisks (‘*’) may be used to represent unit multiplication, a forward slash (‘/’) division and double asterisks (‘**’) powers, e.g gummy(3.67,u=0.22,unit='m s**-1'). If a unit name contains a space, ‘*’ or ‘/’ character then the name must be enclosed in square brackets, e.g: '[light year]'.

• dof: (float or int > 0) The number of degrees of freedom upon which the uncertainty is based. The default is float('inf').

• k: (float or int > 0) The coverage factor for u. The value of the u parameter is divided by the coverage factor to get the standard uncertainty for the new gummy. If the paramter p is specified then the coverage factor is calculated using p and the value of the k parameter is ignored. The default for k is 1. For example:

  >>> g = gummy(3.24,u=0.22,k=2)
  >>> g
  3.24(22) with k = 2.0
  >>> g.U
  0.22
  >>> g.u
  0.11
  

• p: (float between 0 and 1 or None) The level of confidence or probability level for u. If this parameter is specified, then the coverage factor k is calculated using dof and the method specified by the p_method parameter. The standard uncertainty for the gummy is then set to u divided by the coverage factor k. For example:

  >>> g = gummy(3.24,u=0.22,p=0.95)
  >>> g
  3.24(22) with a 95% level of confidence
  >>>g.k
  1.959963984540054
  >>> g.U
  0.22
  >>> g.u
  0.11224696052342387
  

• uunit: (str or Unit ) This represents the units of u. It may be a unit with the same dimension as the unit parameter, e.g. a measurement result of 3 m with an uncertainty of 1 mm can be represented by gummy(3,0.001,unit='m') or equivalently gummy(3,1,unit='m',uunit='mm') The uunit parameter can also be a dimensionless unit if u represents a relative uncertainty, e.g. the gummy above can be also represented by gummy(3,0.1,unit='m',uunit='%'). If uunit is set to None, then the units of u are taken to be the same as those of x (as given by the unit parameter). The default is None. A NoUnitConversionFoundError exception will be generated if uunit is not dimensionless and no conversion exists between uunit and unit.

• utype: (str) An arbitrary string value labeling the uncertainty type. When a calculation is performed with gummys, the combined uncertainty of effective degrees of freedom from one particular uncertainty type can be found in the calculation result with the ufrom and doffrom methods. E.g. you can create a set of gummys with uncertainties assigned either utype “A” or utype “B”, insert them into a measurement equation and find the combined utype “A” uncertainty.

• name: (str) An arbitrary string naming the gummy. The name is used when displaying the gummy value or labeling plot axes and serves no other function.

basic gummy properties

• x: (read-only) Gets the value of the gummy. This property is read-only, but changing the unit property will change x.

• u: (read-only) Gets the standard uncertainty of the gummy in the units set by the unit property. Note that setting the uunit property only affects the value of the U property and not the u property.

• const: (read-only) Return True if u == 0 and False otherwise.

• dof: (read-only) Gets the degrees of freedom associated with u.

• utype: (read-only) Gets the the uncertainty type. See the utype parameter.

• U: (read-only) gets the “expanded” uncertainty, this will depend of the values of the unit, k, p, and p_method properties, also U may be expressed in different units from x and u and may be a relative uncertainty, see the uunit property.

• k: gets or sets the coverage factor for the expanded uncertainty U, U = k*u, setting the p property will change the value of this parameter

• p: gets or sets the level of confidence for the expanded uncertainty, changing this property will change the k property, the relation between the value of this property and the property k is defined by the p_method property

• p_method: ({‘loc’, ‘cp’, ‘gauss’, ‘ccp’, ‘chebyshev’, None}) If the p parameter is specified, p_method sets the method that is used to calculate the coverage factor. If p_method is omitted or set to ‘loc’, then the uncertainty is assumed to be represented by a normal probability distribution if dof = float(‘inf’) and shifted and scaled Student’s t distribution otherwise. If p_method = ‘gauss’ or ‘cp’ then the Guass inequality is used, and if p_method = ‘chebyshev’ or ‘ccp’ then the Chebyshev inequality is used. For p = 0.95 and dof = float(‘inf’), p_method = ‘loc’ gives k = 2.0, while p_method = ‘gauss’ gives k = 3.0 and p_method = ‘chebyshev’ gives k = 4.5. This property may only be set at the class level.

• name: An arbitrary string naming the gummy. The name is used when displaying the gummy value or labeling plot axes and serves no other function.

• ubreakdown: (list of str or None, default is None) If this is set to a list containing strings referencing utypes then when the gummy is printed, the uncertainty from each utype will be displayed separately. Example:

  >>>  a = gummy(1.2,0.2,utype='A')
  >>>  b = gummy(3.2,0.5,utype='A')
  >>>  c = gummy(0.9,0.2,utype='B')
  >>>  d = a + b + c
  >>>  d
  5.30(57)
  >>>  d.ubreakdown = ['A','B']
  >>>  d
  5.30(54)(20)
  >>>  d.style = 'ueq'
  >>>  d
  5.30 with u(A) = 0.54 and u(B) = 0.20
  

• independent: (read-only) Returns False if the gummy was created from a mathematical operation involving other gummys and True otherwise.

• real: returns a self

• imag: returns a zero value gummy

• bayesian: (bool) Read/write at the class level, but read-only at the instance level. The default value is False; this property should only be changed once at the beginning of the session. This property affects how a standard uncertainty based on data with finite degrees of freedom is defined and thus how the level of confidence p (sometimes called coverage probability) of an expanded uncertainty is related to the coverage factor k. Standard uncertainties are often based on the standard deviation of a set of measurements (and the assumption that these measurements are drawn from a normally distributed population). Traditionally (e.g. the GUM 2008 edition) the standard uncertainty is taken to be the standard deviation of the mean (s/sqrt(n), where s is the sample standard deviation and n is the number of measurements). However there is some “extra uncertainty” because the sample standard deviation does not exactly equal the population standard deviation. This is taken into account by using a Student’s t distribution to calculate the expanded uncertainty. However it has been pointed out, by those who advocate a Bayesian point of view, that the probability distribution for the measurand here is best described by a shifted and scaled Student’s t distribution. So the standard uncertainty should be the standard deviation of the Student’s t distribution which is s*sqrt{(n-1)/[n*(n-3)]}. Thus the relationship between the Bayesian and traditional standard uncertainty definitions is:

  u(bayesian) = [dof/(dof - 2)]*u(traditional)
  

  where dof = n - 1 and the “extra uncertainty” of the traditional method is incorporated directly into the standard uncertainty.

• rounding_u: (bool) Set at the class level. If this is set to True then uncertainty is added to account for floating point rounding errors. An uncertainty proportional to the machine epsilon is added to the uncertainty whenever a gummy is created with a floating point data type. Then this uncertainty is propagated like any other uncertainty. This can give some idea of the magnitude of the floating point errors, but is not a substitute for a full numerical error analysis. The default value is False.

• cmp_k, cmp_p: k or p values for comparisons, e.g. a > b is True if c.x > k*c.u where c = b - a. Set only at the class level.

basic gummy methods

• correlation(g): Returns the correlation coefficient between self and g.

• covariance(g): Returns the covariance between self and g.

• static correlation_matrix(gummys): Returns the correlation matrix of a list or array of gummys.

• static covariance_matrix(gummys): Returns the variance-covariance matrix of a list or array of gummys.

• copy(formatting=True, tofloat=False): Returns a copy of the gummy. The copy will be have a correlation coefficient of 1 with the original gummy. If the formatting parameter is True the display formatting information will be copied and if False the display formatting will be set to the default for a new gummy. If tofloat is True then the x and u values in the new gummy will be converted to floats.

• tofloat(): Returns a copy with the x and u values converted to float values. Equivalent to copy(formatting=Flase,tofloat=True).

• ufrom(x): Gets the standard uncertainty contributed from particular gummys or utype if all other free variables are held fixed. The parameter x may be a string referencing a utype or a list containing gummys and (or) strings. This method returns a float. Example:

  >>>  a = gummy(1.2,0.2,utype='A')
  >>>  b = gummy(3.2,0.5,utype='A')
  >>>  c = gummy(0.9,0.2,utype='B')
  >>>  d = a + b + c
  >>>  d.ufrom('A')
  0.53851648071345048
  

• doffrom(x): Gets the effective degrees of freedom contributed from particular gummys or utype if all other free variables are held fixed. The parameter x may be a string referencing a utype or a list containing gummys and (or) strings. This method returns a float. Example:

  >>>  a = gummy(1.2,0.2,dof=5,utype='A')
  >>>  b = gummy(3.2,0.5,dof=7,utype='A')
  >>>  c = gummy(0.9,0.2,utype='B')
  >>>  d = a + b + c
  >>>  d.doffrom('A')
  9.0932962619709627
  

• classmethod create(x, u=None, unit=None, dof=None, k=None, p=None, uunit=None, utype=None, name=None,correlation_matrix=None, covariance_matrix=None): Creates a list of correlated gummys.

  create parameters (only x is required, all others are optional):

  • x: Either a list of floats corresponding to the x-value of each gummy or an instance of a MultivariateDistribution sub-class.

  • u, unit, dof, k, p, uunit, utype, and name: Lists that correspond to the parameters in the gummy initializer (with the i-th value in each list passed to the initializer for the i-th gummy). With the exception of the “name” parameter, these may also be a single value with this same value is to passed to each initializer.

  • correlation_matrix: An list or array to be used as the correlation matrix of the gummys. This is optional and must be set to the default value of None if the covariance_matrix is specified.

  • covariance_matrix: An list or array to be used as the variance-covariance matrix of the ummys. If the covariance matrix is specified the u parameter will be ignored This parameter is optional and must be set to the default value of None if the correlation_matrix is specified. If both the correlation_matrix and the covariance_matrix are None (or omitted) then the gummys will be uncorrelated.

  create returns: a list of gummys

  Note: This package does not implement a multivariate Students’s t distribution that has differing degrees of freedom for each component. So if if the elements of dof are finite and not all the same and either a correlation_matrix or a covariance_matrix is defined, the joint distribution for Monte-Carlo calculations (but not first-order calculations) will default to a multivariate normal distribution.

• gummy.budget(xlist, uunit=None, k=None, p=None, sort=True, columns=None, column_names=None, xnames=None, yname=None, show_subtotals=True, show_expanded_u=None, description=None, description_math_mode=False, custom=None, custom_heading=None, custom_math_mode=False, css=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None, show_s=True, show_d=False, show_c=False, units_on_values=None, sim=False): Returns a Budget object that can be used to display an uncertainty budget table listing the the contributions of the gummys in xlist to the total uncertainty in the calling gummy self.

  To display the table use the Budget.html() or Budget.latex() methods in a console or notebook that supports this type of output or the python print function to get a unicode table.

  The Budget.tohtml() and Budget.tolatex() methods can be used to get strings with the html or latex code.

  The Budget.df property can be used to retrieve a pandas DataFrame with the table. Also Budget.df_str, Budget.df_html and Budget.df_latex return DataFrames with formatted strings as entries rather than numerical values.

  metrolopy.gummy.budget parameters (xlist is required, all others are optional):

  • xlist: (list of gummy) The independent variables. Warnings will be generated if the gummys in this list over determine self (that is if not all variables in this list can be treated as independent variables) or under determine self (that is if some variables contributing to the uncertainty in self are missing).

  • uunit: (str or Unit, default is None) Unit to use to express the uncertainties. This useful if you wish to express all uncertainties as relative uncertainty unit (e.g. %).

  • k and p: (float or None, default is None) k or p values for the expanded uncertainty of the total combined uncertainty; specify either k or p and not both; if neither are specified the the k and p values of self are used.

  • sort: (bool, default is True) Whether or not to sort the gummys in xlist by significance.

  • columns: (list of str or None) Allows the user to select the columns (and ordering of the columns) for display. The available columns are:

    • “component” or “name”: the names of the gummy, displayed by default

    • “description”: description given in the description parameter list, displayed by default if the description parameter is not None

    • “unit”: the unit of the gummy, displayed by default

    • “value”: the x value of the gummy, displayed by default

    • “u” or “uncertainty”: The uncertainty of the gummy. This is the standard uncertainty except possible in the last row where an expanded uncertainty is displayed. This column is displayed by default.

    • “dof”: the degrees of freedom for the uncertainty, displayed by default if any uncertainty has finite degrees of freedom

    • “type”: the uncertainty type, displayed by default if any gummy has a utype defined

    • “s” or “significance”: the sensitivity coefficient (below) multiplied by the standard uncertainty, displayed by default

    • “d”, “derivative” or “partial”: the partial derivative of self with respect to the gummy in that row

    • “c” or “sensitivity coefficient”: the absolute value of “d”

    • “custom”: value given in the custom parameter list, displayed by default if the custom parameter is not None

  The columns displayed can also be set with the Budget.columns property.

  • column_names: (dict or None) Names to display as column headers, if this is None then the default names are used. The dictionary should use as keys any of the column names listed above in the columns parameter description and as values the desired heading for this column. The column names can also be set with the Budget.column_names property.

  • show_subtotals: (bool, default is False) If any uncertainty types are defined, the combined standard uncertainty for each type is displayed in the table. This can also be changed by setting the Budget.show_subtotals attribute.

  • show_expanded_u: (bool or None, default is None) Whether or not to display the expanded uncertainty in the last row. If this is None, then the expaned uncertianty is displayed if self.k != 1. This can also be changed by setting the Budget.show_expanded_u attribute.

  • show_s: (bool, default is True) Whether or not to show the significance column. This is ignored if columns is not None. The default can be changed by setting the attribute class attribute Budget.show_s.

  • show_d: (bool, default is True) Whether or not to show the partial derivatives column. This is ignored if columns is not None. The default can be changed by setting the attribute class attribute Budget.show_d.

  • show_c: (bool, default is False) Whether or not to show the sensitivity coefficient column. This is ignored if columns is not None. The default can be changed by setting the attribute class attribute Budget.show_c.

  • units_on_values: (bool or None, default is None): If this is True, units are shown in the value and u columns and if False the units are in a separate column. If None then the units are in a separate column unless self or any gummy in xlist has a uunit defined.

  • sim: (bool, default is False): If True, the combined uncertainty and partial derivatives will be calculated using Monte-Carlo data.

  • css: (str or None, defualt is None) css header to be used when displaying the table in HTML format. If this is None then Budget.default_css will be used.

  • description: (list of str or None, default is None) An optional column of descriptions to be printed in the table. This should be a description for self then for each x, and followed, optionally, by subtotal and expanded uncertainty descriptions.

  • description_math_mode: (bool, default is False) If this is False, then when using a LaTeX format, the description is put in normal text mode rather than math mode.

  • custom: (list of str or None, default is None) An optional column of additional information to be printed in the table. This should be a value for self then for each x, and followed, optionally, by subtotal and expanded uncertainty values.

  • custom_heading: (str or None, default is None) A heading for the custom column.

  • custom_math_mode: (bool, default is False) If this is False, then when using a LaTeX format, the custom value is put in normal text mode rather than math mode.

  • solidus and mulsep: Affects unit formatting, see the gummy attributes solidus and mulsep

• conjugate(): returns a copy of self

• angle(): returns gummy(numpy.pi) if self.x < 0 and gummy(0) otherwise

arithmetic operations and functions involving gummys

The standard Python arithmetic operations are allowed between gummys and between gummys and floats or integers: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, floor division, exponentiation, modulus, absolute value, and negation. These operations are allowed with complex types, with the result a jummy rather than a gummy instance. For addition and subtraction, the units must be compatible (the of units of the two operands do not need to be the same, but a conversion must exist between the units, see also the c property). Exponents must be dimensionless (that is a conversion from the exponent unit to the unit one must exist) and if the exponent has an uncertainty, the base must be dimensionless. Dividing gummys with int values results in a gummy with a fractions.Fraction value. Nonlinear units such as the decibel and the degree Celsius affect the behavior of gummys under certain operations.

Most functions and operations respect the numpy boadcasting rules when passed numpy arrays. Operation and functions are first tried with no type conversions and if that fails all x and u values are converted to floats and the operation of function is tried again. Set metrolopy.dfunc.try_fconvert = False to disable this automatic conversion to float values.

The gummy module installs a number of common mathematical functions that can be applied directly to dimensionless gummys, e.g:

>>> import gummy as uc
>>> g = uc.gummy(0.123,0.022)
>>> uc.sin(g)
0.123(22)

For numpy version 1.13 or later, many numpy functions can be applied directly to dimensionless gummys, e.g:

>>> import numpy as np
>>> import gummy as uc
>>> g = uc.gummy(0.123,0.022)
>>> np.cos(g)
0.9924(27)

The two class methods immediately below may also be used to apply an arbitrary numerical function to one or more gummys.

gummy methods for applying numerical functions

• classmethod apply(function, derivative, arg1, arg2, …): Applies a function to one or more dimensionless gummy objects propagating the uncertainty.

  apply Parameters:

  • function: The the function to be applied. This must be a Python function that takes one more float arguments and return a float value or float array.

  • derivative: The name of a second function that gives the derivatives with respect to the arguments of function. derivative should take an equal number of arguments as function. If function takes one argument derivative should return a float and if function takes more than one argument then derivative should return a tuple, list or array of floats that contains the derivatives with respect to each argument.

  • arg1, arg2, …: One or more arguments to which function will be applied. These arguments need not all be gummys objects; arguments such as floats will be taken to be constants with no uncertainty. They may also be numpy ndarrays in which case the usual numpy broadcasting rules apply. All gummy arguments must be dimensionless, that there must exist a conversion to the unit one.

  • return value: If none of the arguments arg1, arg2, … are gummy then the return value is function directly applied to the arguments. Otherwise the return value is a gummy.

  Examples:

  >>> import numpy as np
  >>> x = gummy(0.678,u=0.077)
  >>> gummy.apply(np.sin,np.cos,x)
  0.627(60)
  
  >>> x = gummy(1.22,u=0.44)
  >>> y = gummy(3.44,u=0.67)
  >>> def dhypot(x,y):
  ...     return (x1/sqrt(x1**2 + x2**2),x2/np.sqrt(x1**2 + x2**2))
  >>> gummy.apply(np.hypot,dhypot,x,y)
  3.65(65)
  

• classmethod napply(function, derivative, arg1, arg2, …): Applies a function to one or more dimensionless gummy objects propagating the uncertainty. This method is similar to apply except that the derivatives are computed numerically so a derivative function does not need to be supplied.

napply parameters:

• function: The the function to be applied. This must be a Python function that takes one more float arguments and return a float value or float array.

• derivative: The name of a second function that gives the derivatives with respect to the arguments of function. derivative should take an equal number of arguments as function. If function takes one argument derivative should return a float and if function takes more than one argument then derivative should return a tuple, list or array of floats that contains the derivatives with respect to each argument.

• arg1, arg2, …: One or more arguments to which function will be applied. These arguments need not all be gummys objects; arguments such as floats will be taken to be constants with no uncertainty. They may also be numpy ndarrays in which case the usual numpy broadcasting rules apply. All gummy arguments must be dimensionless, that there must exist a conversion to the unit one.

• return value: If none of the arguments arg1, arg2, … are gummy then the return value is function directly applied to the arguments. Otherwise the return value is a gummy.

Examples:

>>> import numpy as np
>>> x = gummy(0.678,u=0.077)
>>> gummy.napply(np.sin,x)
0.627(60)

>>> x = gummy(1.22,u=0.44)
>>> y = gummy(3.44,u=0.67)
>>> gummy.napply(np.hypot,x,y)
3.65(65)

gummy properties and methods related to units and unit conversion

Units are represented by instances of the Unit class or sub-classes, however the user rarely needs to interact directly with these objects as strings can be used in place of Unit objects in all properties and methods dealing with units. It is, however, straight forward for to create custom units.

gummy properties related to units

• unit: Gets or sets the units for the values of the x and u properties, also sets the units for U if uunit is None. When setting this property either a Unit object or a string referencing a Unit object may be used. A NoUnitConversionFoundError exception will be generated if no conversion exists between the original unit and the new unit. Example:

  >>> g = gummy(1,unit='J')
  >>> g.unit = 'erg'
  

  Spaces or asterisks (‘*’) may be used to represent unit multiplication, a forward slash (‘/’) division and double asterisks (‘**’) powers, e.g ‘m/s’ or ‘m s**-1’. If a unit name contains a space, ‘*’ or ‘/’ character then the name must be enclosed in square brackets, e.g: ‘[light year]’.

• uunit: gets or sets the units for U. Setting uunit to None puts U in the same units as x. If uunit is a dimensionless unit (e.g. one, ‘%’, ‘ppm’ or ‘um/m’) then U is a relative uncertainty. When setting this property either a Unit object or a string referencing a Unit object may be used.

• uunit_is_rel: Returns True if the U property will return a relative uncertainty and False otherwise.

• c: This read-only property is used as a conversion flag during calculations. When an arithmetic operation is carried out between two gummys with different units, a unit conversion on one of the input quantities may be required to complete the calculation. Attach this flag to the unit that you prefer be converted if you do not which gummy to make the choice. For example:

  >>> a = gummy(1,u=0.01,unit='cm')
  >>> b = gummy(2,u=0.2,unit='mm')
  >>> a + b
  1.200(22) cm
  >>> a.c + b
  12.00(22) mm
  >>> a + b.c
  1.200(22) cm
  

gummy methods related to units

• convert(unit,uunit=None): Returns a copy of the original gummy with converted units. unit and uunit are either a strings or Unit instances for the new units for the x and U properties of the new gummy respectively.

• graft(unit,uunit=None): Returns a copy of the original gummy, keeping the same numerical value of the x and U properties of the original gummy, but with new units unit and uunit respectively.

• reduce_unit(): Cancels factors in a gummy’s unit when possible. This modifies the calling gummy and returns None. For example example:

  >>> g = gummy(5,unit='mm/m')
  >>> g
  5 mm/m
  >>> g.reduce_unit()
  >>> g
  0.005
  

unit search function

The following function is not part of the gummy class but is useful when dealing with units.

• metrolopy.search_units(search=None, fmt=None, show_all=False, units= None, prnt=True): Prints a list of all units that match the search terms. If this function is called with no arguments, then a list of all loaded units is printed.

  search_units parameters:

  • search: (str) A space separated list of search terms to case insensitively match. If this is omitted or set equal to None a list of all loaded units will be printed. The default is None.

  • fmt: ({‘html’, ‘latex’, ‘unicode’, ‘ascii’, None}, optional) The output format. If None, then the gummy.printer value is used. If latex output is selected, Markdown is actually used with the unit symbols and conversion displayed using inline LaTeX.

  • show_all: (bool,optional) If True units are shown with each prefix listed on a separate line (e.g. the millisecond and the microsecond are listed in addition to the second) and interval units are shown. If False only the base unit is shown. The default is False.

  • units: (list of str or Unit,optional) A list of units to print. If this parameter is specified the values of the search and show_all parameters are ignored.

  • prnt: (bool,optional) If this is True, the results are printed. If it is False the results are returned as a string. The default is True.

gummy properties and methods related to Monte-Carlo simulation

Gummy allows uncertainty propagation using Monte-Carlo simulation in addition to first order error propagation. Before using many of the properties and methods in this section, Monte-Carlo data must be generated by calling the sim method (to generate Monte-Carlo data for one gummy) or the simulate static method (to generate Monte-Carlo data for one or more gummys). Note that these methods will erase all previous Monte-Carlo data from all gummys before generating new data. So if you want data available for multiple gummys use the simulate static method rather than the sim method. A NoSimulatedDataError exception will be raised if no simulated data is available when a property is accessed or a method called that needs Monte-Carlo data.

gummy properties related to Monte-Carlo simulation

• xsim: (read-only) Gets the mean of the simulated data.

• usim: (read-only) Gets the standard deviation of the simulated data.

• cisim: (read-only) Gets a tuple giving the lower followed by the upper bound of the confidence interval calculated from the simulated data. The confidence level for the interval is equal to the p property of the gummy. See the cimethod property for details on how the interval is calculated.

• cimethod: ({‘shortest’, ‘symmetric’}) Gets or sets the method for calculating the confidence interval from the Monte-Carlo data. It can be set either to the string ‘shortest’ or the string ‘symmetric’ (the default is ‘shortest’). The ‘shortest’ confidence interval will be taken to be the shortest interval that includes the desired fraction of the probability distribution. If the confidence interval is ‘symmetric’, then it will be set so that, for n Monte-Carlo samples and a coverage probability of p, n*(1-p)/2 samples lie below the lower limit of the confidence interval and the same number of samples lie above the upper limit of the confidence interval. This property can be set at the class or instance level.

• Usim: (read-only) Gets the tuple: (xsim - cisim[0], xsim + cisim[1])

• ksim: (read-only) Gets 0.5*(Usim[0] + Usim[1])/usim.

• simdata: (read-only) Gets a numpy.ndarray containing the simulated data.

• simsorted: (read-only) Gets a numpy.ndarray containing the simulated data sorted from smallest to largest.

• distribution: (read-only) Gets the Distribution sub-class instance representing the gummy. If the gummy was created as a result of mathematical operations involving other gummys, then the distribution will be an instance of the Convolution sub-class of Distribution. For other gummys the distribution can be specified using the x parameter in the initializer. If x is not specified as a Distribution, the distribution will be taken as either the NormalDist or TDist sub-classes of Distribution.

gummy methods related to Monte-Carlo simulation

• sim(n=100000,ufrom=None): Generates Monte-Carlo data for the calling gummy. Calling this method erases previously generated Monte-Carlo data for all gummys, so use the gummy.simulate staticmethod if you need Monte-Carlo data for several gummys simultaneously. n is the number of samples to generate. The default value for n is 100000. The ufrom keyword can be used to separately analyze various contributions to the uncertainty. If ufrom is specified, only the gummys referenced by ufrom will be allowed to vary and all other gummys will be held fixed. ufrom can be a gummy, a string referencing a utype, or a list containing gummys and (or) string references to utypes.

• static simulate(gummys,n=100000,ufrom=None): Generates Monte-Carlo data for one or more gummys references by the parameter gummys. gummys can be can be a gummy, a string referencing a utype, or a list containing gummys and (or) string references to utypes. Calling this method erases previously generated Monte-Carlo data for all gummys. The n and ufrom parameters are the same as for the .sim method.

• static set_seed(seed): Sets the seed for the numpy.random.RandomState object shared by all Distribution instances.

• hist(title=None, xlabel=None, p=None, show_p=True, title_style=None, mean_marker=True, mean_marker_options={}, ci_marker=True, ci_marker_options={}, hold=False, **plot_options): Plots a histogram of the Monte-Carlo data for the gummy. Before calling this method either the .sim or .simulate method must be called to generate theMonte-Carlo data.

  hist parameters (all are optional):

  • title: (str or None) A title for the plot. If this is omitted or set to None then a title will be generated using the gummy name (if it has one) and the mean value and confidence interval. The title will also give the standard deviation of the date. The formatting of the auto-generated title depends on the value of the title_style parameter.

  • xlabel: (str or None) A label for the horizontal axis of the plot. If this is omitted or set to None then a label will be generated using the name and unit of the gummy. If xlabel is None and the gummy has no name and a unit of one, then the horizontal axis will not be labeled.

  • p: (float between 0 and 1 or None) The probability for the confidence interval (as printed in the title and indicated by the ci_markers). If this is none then the value of the gummy.p property is used. The default is None.

  • show_p: (bool) Whether or not to show the level of confidence in the title if the title is auto-generated.

  • title_style: (str in {‘pmsim’,’pmsimi’,’cisim’,’mcisym’,’xsim’,’xfsim’, ‘usim’,’ufsim’}) The style for displaying the value in the title. See the gummy.style property for details. It this is None or omitted then the value of the gummy.style property is used.

  • mean_marker: (bool) Whether or not to display a vertical line at the mean value (as given by gummy.xsim). The default is True.

  • mean_marker_options: (dict) A dictionary containing keywords to be passed to the pyplot.axvline method which draws the mean marker. For example setting this to {‘color’=’r’,’linewidth’=4} makes the mean marker red and with thickness of four points.

  • ci_marker: (bool) Whether or not to display vertical lines at the upper and lower limits of the confidence interval. The default is True.

  • ci_marker_options: (dict) A dictionary containing keywords to be passed to the pyplot.axvline method which draws the confidence interval markers.

  • hold: (bool) If this is False pyplot.show() is called before this method exits. If it is True pyplot.show() is not called. The default is False.

  • plot_options: These are optional keyword arguments that are passed to the pyplot.hist method. For example bins=50 overrides the default number of bins (100). For other options see the pyplot.hist documentation.

• static covplot(x, y, title=None, xlabel=None, ylabel=None, mean_marker=False, mean_marker_options={}, hold=False, **plot_options): Creates scatter plot showing the covariance between two gummys.

  covplot paramters (all but x and y are optional):

  • x: (gummy) The gummy to plot on the horizontal axis.

  • y: (gummy) The gummy to plot on the vertical axis.

  • title: (str or None) A title for the plot. If this is omitted or set to None then the correlation will be displayed as the title.

  • xlabel: (str or None) A label for the horizontal axis. If this is omitted or None then that axis will be labeled either “x” or with the x gummy’s unit.

  • ylabel: (str or None) A label for the vertical axis. If this is omitted or None then that axis will be labeled either “y” or with the y gummy’s unit.

  • mean_marker: (bool) Whether or not to display line markers at the mean values of x and y. The default is False.

  • mean_marker_options: (dict) A dictionary of options to be passed to the pyplot.axvline and pyplot.axhline methods that draw the mean_marker.

  • hold: (bool) If this is False pyplot.show() is called before this method exits. If it is True pyplot.show() is not called. The default is False.

  • plot_options: These are optional keyword arguments that are passed to the pyplot.plot method. For example ms=0.1 decreases the size of the dots in the plot.

gummy properties and methods related to display and formatting

gummy formatting properties and attributes

All of these properties and attributes can be set at either the class or instance level.

• style: Get or set the default display style for new gummys. This is a string with one of the following values:

  • 'pm' or '+-' may give, e.g. in ascii format (1.00 +/- 0.12)e-12 cm

  • 'pmi' or '+-i' gives e.g. 1.00e-12 cm +/- 1.2e-13 cm

  • 'concise' or '()' gives e.g. 1.00(12)e-12 cm

  • 'ueq' or 'u equals' gives e.g. 1.00e-12 cm with u = 1.2e-13 cm

  • 'x' or 'x only' gives e.g. 1.00e-12 cm

  • 'xf' gives e.g. 1.00e-12

  • 'u' or 'u only' gives 1.2e-13 cm

  • 'uf' gives 1.2e-13

  The following styles display a mean and confidence interval based on data from a Monte-Carlo simulation (if no simulated data is available the string 'no simulated data' is returned):

  • 'pmsim' gives e.g. (1.01 + 0.11 - 0.13)e-12 cm

  • 'pmsimi' gives e.g. 1.01e-12 cm + 1.1e-13 cm - 1.3e-11 cm

  • 'mcisim' gives e.g. mean = 1.01e-12 cm, confidence interval = [8.8e-13 cm, 1.13e-12 cm]

  • 'cisim' gives e.g [8.8e-13 cm, 1.13e-12 cm]

  • 'usim' gives the standard deviation e.g. 1.2e-13 cm

  • 'ufsim' gives the standard deviation e.g. 1.2e-13

  Note if uunit has been defined for the gummy instance, then concise style and pm style are not valid and the display will default to pmi style.

  The style can be set either at the class or the instance level.

• nsig: (int) This number of significant figures to display for the uncertainty. The default is 2. This can be set at the class or instance level. If nsig is set to -1, then the uncertainty will not be explicitly printed but the x value will be rounded so that the expanded uncertainty U is between 1 and 10 counts in the last digit.

• show_k: (bool or None) Determines whether the coverage factor (k) is printed along with the value and uncertianty. If this is set to None (the default value), then k will be displayed if the k property or k parameter has been set to a value other than 1.

• show_p: (bool or None) Determines whether the level of confidence for the uncertainty (p) is printed along with the value and uncertainty. If this is set to None (the default value), then p will be displayed if the p property or p parameter has been set.

• show_dof: (bool or None) Determines whether the effective number of degrees of freedom is printed along with the value and uncertainty. If this is set to None (the default value), then dof will be displayed if the value of the dof property is less than 10.

• show_name: (bool) If this is True and the name of the gummy is not None then the gummy will be displayed as [*name*] = ...

• sci_notation: (bool or None) Determines whether the scientific notation will be used. If this is set to None (the default value) then scientific notation will be used if the value of the x property has an exponent greater than the sci_notation_high attribute or an exponent less than sci_notation_low attribute.

• sci_notation_high: (int) See the sci_notation attribute, default is 7.

• sci_notation_low: (int) See the sci_notation attribute, default is -3.

• solidus: (bool) Determines whether unit are displayed with negative exponents (if solidus is False) or if a solidus (back-slash) is used to separate units in the numerator and denominator of a composite unit (when solidus is True, this is the default).

• mulsep: (bool) If True an asterix, ‘*’, or dot, ‘·’, is used to separate units in a composite unit, and a space is used if mulsep is False. The default is False.

• slashaxis: (bool) Affects plots axes labeling where units are used. If True e.g. an axis may be labeled ‘Time / s’ while if False it would be labeled ‘Time (s)’.

• printer: Get or set the prefered display printer. This is a string with one of the following values: ‘any’, ‘latex’, ‘html’, ‘unicode’, ‘ascii’, or ‘any_but_latex’. ‘any’ will usually pick html or latex output when running in an IPython console or Jupyter notebook and unicode otherwise. “any_but_latex” will usually pick html when running in an IPython console or Jupyter notebook and unicode otherwise. ‘latex’ and ‘html’ are only available when running under IPython. If these printers are not available the display will default to ‘unicode’.

• max_digits: (int) Gets or sets the maximum number of digits to display for the x value.

gummy display methods

• latex(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Prints the gummy using LaTeX if this method is executed from a latex capable Ipython console or from a Jupyter or Ipython notebook. All parameters are optional. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy.

• html(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Prints the gummy using HTML if this method is executed from an Ipython console or from a Jupyter or Ipython notebook. All parameters are optional. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy.

• unicode(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Prints the gummy using unicode characters. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy. If g is a gummy, then g.unicode() is equivalent to print(g.tounicode(...)).

• ascii(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Prints the gummy using unicode characters. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy. If g is a gummy, then g.ascii() equivalent to print(g.toascii(...)).

• tostring(fmt=None, style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Returns a string displaying the value of the gummy in the desired format. The fmt parameter is a string with the value in {“unicode”,”latex”,”html”,”ascii”} or None. fmt will default to ‘ascii’ if self.printer is’ascii’ or ‘unicode’ otherwise. Any other parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of self.

• tohtml(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Returns a string with the value as an html fragment. All parameters are optional. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy. This is equivalent to the gummy.tostring method with the fmt parameter set to ‘html’.

• tolatex(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Returns a string with the value as an LaTeX fragment. It is assumed that LaTeX is in math mode. All parameters are optional. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy. This is equivalent to the gummy.tostring method with the fmt parameter set to ‘latex’.

• toascii(style=None, k=None, p=None, show_k=None, show_p=None, show_dof=None, show_name=None, nsig=None, solidus=None, mulsep=None): Returns a string with the value formatted so that only ASCII characters are used. All parameters are optional. Any parameters that are not None override the corresponding attributes of the calling gummy. This is equivalent to the gummy.tostring method with the fmt parameter set ‘ascii’.

class Distribution and sub-classes

The Distribution class is the abstract base class for objects which represent the the probability distributions that the gummy Monte-Carlo samples are drawn from. Instances of these Distributions can used as the x parameter when creating gummys or can be used independantly as mathematical operations between Distributions produce Convolutions. See the auto-generated documentation for the Distribution methods and properties. The distributions below are built into the gummy package and custom distributions can also be defined by the user.

• class metrolopy.ArcSinDist(center=None, half_width=None, lower_limit=None, upper_limit=None): Arcsin distribution, specify either center and half_width or lower_limit and upper_limit.

• class metrolopy. BinomialDist(n, p): Binomial distribution with number of trials n and success probability p.

• class metrolopy.Convolution(func, d1, d2, …): Normally this Distribution is not created directly, but is the result of mathematical operations involving gummys. This sub-class represents distributions resulting from applying func to d1, d2, … The function func takes an the same number of scalar arguments as there are d1, d2, … parameters and returns a scalar. d1, d2, … can be either instances of Distribution subclasses or scalar values.

• class metrolopy.CurvlinearTrapDist(center=None, half_width=None, limit_half_range=None, lower_limit=None, upper_limit=None): Curvlinear trapezoidal distribution, limit_half_range is required. Also either center and half_width or lower_limit and upper_limit are required. This is intended to represent a variable that follows a uniform distribution but where the upper and lower limits are not exactly known and may vary by up to the limit_half_range from the given lower and upper limit values.

• class metrolopy.ExponentialDist(scale=None, rate=None): Exponential distribution with probability density function:

  f(x;rate) = rate*exp(-rate*x).
  

  Specify either scale or rate (scale = 1/rate), but not both.

• class metrolopy.GammaDist(shape, scale): Gamma distribution with the shape and scale parameters.

• class metrolopy.LaplaceDist(x, scale): Laplace distribution with location parameter x and scale parameter.

• class metrolopy.LogNormalDist(mu=None,sigma=None): Log-normal distribution where the logrithm of the random variable has mean mu and standard deviation sigma.

• class metrolopy.MultiNormalDist(mean, cov): Multivariate normal distribution. The parameter mean is a list of mean values for each dimension and cov is the variance-covariance matrix.

• class metrolopy.MultiTDist(mean, cov, dof): Multivariate shifted and scaled Students’s t distribution. The parameter mean is a list of mean values for each dimension and cov is the variance-covariance matrix. The parameter dof is the number of degrees of freedom and must be scalar; all dimensions must have the same number of degrees of freedom.

• class metrolopy.MultvariateDistribution(nd): Abstract base class for mulit-variate distributions. nd is the number of dimensions.

• class metrolopy.NormalDist(x, s): Normal distribution with mean x and standard deviation s.

• class metrolopy.PoissonDist(lam): Poisson distribution with rate parameter lam.

• class metrolopy.TDist(x, s, dof): Shifted and scaled Students’s t distribution with degrees of freedom dof, mean x, and scale factor s.

• class metrolopy.TrapezoidalDist(lower_limit, upper_limit, top_to_base_ratio): Trapezoidal distribution

• class metrolopy.TriangularDist(mode, half_width=None, left_width=None, right_width=None, lower_limit=None, upper_limit=None): Triangular distribution. For a symmetric distribution specify half_width, otherwise specify two, and only two, of the parameters left_width, right_width, lower_limit, upper_limit.

• class metrolopy.UniformDist(center=None, half_width=None, lower_limit=None, upper_limit=None): A uniform distribution. Specify two, and only two, of the parameters center, half_width, lower_limit and upper_limit .

• class metrolopy.WeibullDist(shape, scale): Weibull distribution with shape and scale parameters.

custom distributions

Custom distributions can be implemented by creating a class that inherits from the Distribution class and implements the following methods:

• random(self, n=None): Return a numpy array of n values drawn from the distribution. If n is None then a single scalar value should be returned. Preferably use, as a random number generator, the numpy RandomState object accessed with the Distribution.random_state static method.

• x(self): A scalar “center” of the distribution. This is used to get the x value of a gummy defined with the distribution.

• u(self): A scalar “standard uncertainty” of the distribution (usually the standard deviation). This is used to get the u value of a gummy defined with the distribution.

for example:

class ChiSquaredDist(Distribution):
    def __init__(self,dof):
        self.dof = dof

    def random(self,n=None):
        return Distribution.random_state().chisquare(self.dof,n)

    def x(self):
        return self.dof

    def u(self):
        return 2*self.dof

custom multi-variate distributions

To create a multi-variate distribution, inherit from the MultivariateDistribution class and define the following methods:

• simulate(self, n): Return a numpy array of n samples drawn from the distribution. Preferably use, as a random number generator, the numpy RandomState object accessed with the Distribution.random_state() static method. For a distribution with number of dimensions nd, the shape of the returned array must be (nd, n).

• x(self): a list or array with the “center” of the distribution for each dimension (usually the mean of the distribution). This is used to get the x values of gummys defined with the distribution.

• u(self): A list or array with “standard uncertainty” of the distribution (usually the standard deviation) for each dimension. This is used to get the u values of gummys defined with the distribution.

and the following read-only property

• cov: (read-only property) Returns the variance-covariance matrix

The __init__ function must also call the MultivariateDistribution __init__ with the number of dimensions nd of the distribution e.g. super().__init__(nd).

for example:

class DirechletDist(MultivariateDistribution):
    def __init__(self,alpha):
        self.alpha = alpha

        a0 = sum(alpha)
        b = (a0**2*(a0 + 1))
        self._x = [a/a0 for a in alpha]
        self._u = [a*(a0 - a)/b for a in alpha]
        self._cov = [[ai*(a0 - ai)/b if i == j else -ai*aj/b
                      for i,ai in enumerate(alpha)]
                      for j,aj in enumerate(alpha)]

        super().__init__(len(alpha))

    def _simulate(self,n):
        self.simdata = Distribution.random_state().dirichlet(self.alpha,n).T

    def x(self):
        return self._x

    def u(self):
        return self._u

    @property
    def cov(self):
        return self._cov

built-in mathematical functions

The following functions are installed as part of the gummy package can take gummy, jummy, or float arguments. Arguments must be dimensionless for transcendental functions.

metrolopy.absolute(x): equivalent to abs(x)

metrolopy.add(x1,x2): equivalent to z1 + x2

metrolopy.angle(x): returns the complex argument of x

metrolopy.arccos(x): inverse cosine of x

metrolopy.arccosh(x): inverse hyperbolic cosine of x

metrolopy.arcsin(x): inverse sine of x

metrolopy.arcsinh(x): inverse hyperbolic sine of x

metrolopy.arctan(x): inverse tangent of x

metrolopy.arctanh(x): inverse hyperbolic tangent of x

metrolopy.arctan2(x,y): arctan of x/y and giving the correct quadrant

metrolopy.araound(x,n=0): x rounded to n digits

metrolopy.cbrt(x): cube root of x

metrolopy.ceil(x): ceiling of x

metrolopy.conj(x): complex conjugate of x

metrolopy.cos(x): cosine of x

metrolopy.cosh(x): hyperbolic cosine of x

metrolopy.cross(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.cross

metrolopy.cumpord(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.cumprod

metrolopy.cumsum(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.cumsum

metrolopy.diff(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.diff

metrolopy.divide(x1,x2): equivalent to x1 / x2

metrolopy.divmod(x1,x2): returns (x1 // x2, x1 % x2)

metrolopy.ediff1d(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.ediff1d

metrolopy.exp(x): natural exponential function

metrolopy.expm1(x): exp(x) - 1

metrolopy.exp2(x): exponential function with base 2

metrolopy.fabs(x): equivalent to the built-in python function abs

metrolopy.fix(x): returns x rounded towards zero

metrolopy.floor(x): floor of x

metrolopy.floor_divide(x1,x2): equivalent to x1 // x2

metrolopy.gradient(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.gradient

metrolopy.heaviside(x,h0): Heavyside function: 0 for x < 0, h0 at x == 0, and 1 for x > 0

metrolopy.imag(x): returns the imaginary part of x

metrolopy.log(x): natural logarithm of x

metrolopy.logaddexp(x,y): loge(ex + ey)

metrolopy.logaddexp2(x,y): log2(2x + 2y)

metrolopy.log1p(x): natural logarithm of 1 + x

metrolopy.log2(x): logarithm base 2 of x

metrolopy.log10(x): logarithm base 10 of x

metrolopy.mod(x): x1 % x2

metrolopy.modf(x1,x2): returns (x1 % 1, x1 // 1)

metrolopy.multiply(x1,x2): equivalent to x1 * x2

metrolopy.negative(x): equivalent to -x

metrolopy.power(x1,x2): equivalent to x1**x2

metrolopy.prod(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.prod

metrolopy.real(x): returns the real part of x

metrolopy.reciprocal(x): equivalent to 1/x

metrolopy.remainder(x): x1 % x2

metrolopy.rint(x): x rounded to the nearest integer value

metrolopy.sin(x): sine of x

metrolopy.sign(x): sign function, -1 for x < 0, 0 for x == 0, and 1 for x > 0

metrolopy.sinh(x): hyperbolic sine of x

metrolopy.square(x): square of x

metrolopy.sqrt(x): the square root of x

metrolopy.subtract(x1,x2): equivalent to x1 - x2

metrolopy.sum(*args,**kwds): alias for numpy.sum

metrolopy.tan(x): tangent of x

metrolopy.tanh(x): hyperbolic tangent of x

metrolopy.true_divide(x1,x2): equivalent to x1 / x2

metrolopy.trunc(x): x rounded towards zero

class Unit

The gummy class uses Unit instances to represent physical units or units cns be multiplied or divided by other Unit instances to create composite units or multiply or divider numerical values to create Quantity instances. See the auto-generated documentation for the deatils of the Quantity class. A number of units are loaded with the gummy package. See the search_units function to get a list of all available units. Custom units can also be defined by creating instances of the Unit class or a sub-class. Though you can assign the instance to a variable, this is not necessary since units can be accessed using string names. E.g. we can define:

>>> Unit('weird meter','wm',conversion=Conversion('m',0.9144),add_symbol=True)
>>> gummy(3.3,unit='wm')
3.3 wm

class metrolopy.Unit(name, symbol, conversion=None, short_name=None, add_symbol=False, html_symbol=None, latex_symbol=None, ascii_symbol=None, description=None, order = -1): Creating an instance of this class creates a representation of a physical unit and adds it to the unit library. Units already in the unit library or derived units made up of other units in the unit library can be accessed by passing a text string with the unit name or symbol to the static method unit . (In most cases you do not need to call the unit method directly; a gummy object will automatically call this method when a gummy property or method is passed a string that references a unit).

Unit parameters

• name: (str) The name of the unit. The name can be used access the unit with the unit method, but note that if you define a Unit with an identical name to a previously defined unit then the older name will be shadowed.

• symbol: (str) A unicode symbol used when displaying the unit. If the add_symbol parameter is set to True, then this symbol can also be used to access the unit with the unit method. A gummy is normally printed with a space between the value and the unit, however this space is removed if the symbol string starts with a tab character.

• conversion (Conversion instance, optional, default is None) A Conversion instance representing the conversion to another unit. The conversion takes as its first argument the other unit and as the second argument the conversion factor (float or gummy) to the other unit, e.g.:

  >>> Unit('inch','in')
  >>> Unit('foot','ft',conversion=Conversion('in',12))
  >>> Unit('yard','yd',conversion=Conversion('ft',3))
  

  Circular conversion chains must be avoided. This will generate a CircularUnitConversionError exception:

  >>> Unit('inch','in',conversion=Conversion('yd',1/36))
  >>> Unit('foot','ft',conversion=Conversion('in',12))
  >>> Unit('yard','yd',conversion=Conversion('ft',3))
  

  The exception will not be raised until a unit conversion is attempted using one of these units and not immediately after the units are defined. An equivalent and allowable way of defining the first set of units above is:

  >>> Unit('inch','in')
  >>> Unit('foot','ft',conversion=Conversion('in',12))
  >>> Unit('yard','yd',conversion=Conversion('in',36))
  

• short_name: (str, optional, default is None) An alternate short name for the unit that can be used with the unit method.

• add_symbol: (bool, optional, default is False) If this is True, the symbol, in addition to the name and short_name can be used to look up the with the unit method.

• html_symbol, latex_symbol, ascii_symbol: (str, optional, default is None): html, latex, and ascii versions of the symbol if they are different from the unicode representation of the symbol. A gummy is normally printed with a space between the value and the unit, however this space is removed if the symbol string starts with a tab character.

• description: (str, optional, default is None) A description of the unit. Words used in the description can be searched using the search_units function.

• order: (int, default is -1) When composite units are printed, the symbols with the lowest order value will be printed to the left (unless this behavior is overridden with the reorder method).

Unit static methods

• static unit(text, exception=True): This method is called whenever a string referencing a Unit is passed to a gummy property or method. This method finds and returns a Unit instance from the Unit library. The parameter text may be a string representing the unit. The string can contain the name, short name or (if the unit was created with add_symbol set to True) the symbol of the unit. This parameter may also be a combination of names and/or symbols of several different units. Spaces or the character ‘*’ represent multiplication, the character ‘/’ represents division and the string ‘**’ represents the power operator. For example txt can be: 'kg m**2/s' or equivalently 'kilogram*metre*metre*second**-1' or '(kg/s)*m**2'. If a unit name contains a space, ‘*’ or ‘/’ character then the name must be enclosed in square brackets, e.g: '[light year]'. If text is a Unit instance, then that instance is returned. If text is the integer 1 or the string '1', then the instance one is returned. If the parameter exception is True a UnitNotFoundError or UnitLibError is raised if a unit is not found that matches text. If the parameter exception is False and a unit is not found, then this method returns None without raising an exception. The default is True.

• static reorder(txt): This changes the order in which the symbols of composite derived units are printed. For example:

  >>> print(Unit.unit('ft lb'))
  ft lb
  >>> print(Unit.unit('lb ft'))  #This is the same unit as above and prints identically
  ft lb
  >>> Unit.reorder('lb ft')  #Now the order will be changed when the unit is displayed
  >>> print(Unit.unit('ft lb'))
  lb ft
  

• static alias(alias, unit): Creates an alias (an alternate name) that can be used to reference a Unit. The parameter alias is a string containing the new alias. The parameter unit is a string referencing the Unit (or the Unit instance itself) that will be assigned the alias.

Unit properties

• aliases: (read-only) Returns a set of the unshadowed aliases of the unit.

• shadowed_aliases: (read-only) Returns a set of any aliases that have been shadowed by other unit definitions.

• is_dimensionless: (read-only) Returns True if a conversion exists between self and the Unit instance one, and False if not.

• units: (read-only) Returns a list of the constituent units and their exponents, e.g. for kg m**2/s units would return [(kg, 1), (m, 2), (s, -1)].

Unit sub-classes

For examples of unit definitions using the following Unit sub-classes see the siunit.py and usunits.py modules in the gummy package

• class metrolopy.PrefixedUnit: Creates a set of units with SI prefixes (…, kilo, mega, giga, …). For example:

  PrefixedUnit('metre','m',additional_names=('meter',),add_symbol=True,
               order=1,description='SI unit of length',
               base_description='SI base unit of length')
  
  PrefixedUnit('inch','in',Conversion('m',0.0254),prefixes=['micro'],
               add_symbol=True,description='unit of length')
  

  The definition above for the metre generates a set of units using all of the SI prefixes. But the prefixes key word is used with the inch definition so that only the inch and microinch are generated.

• class metrolopy.BinaryPrefixedUnit: Creates a set of unit with binary prefixes (…, kibi, mebi, gibi, …)

• class metrolopy.NonlinearUnit: Abstract base class for LogUnit and OffsetUnit

• class metrolopy.LogUnit: Generates logrithmic units (e.g. decibel or neper). For example:

  LogUnit('decibel sound pressure level','dB',
          LogConversion(gummy(20,unit='uPa'),20,10,np.log10),
          short_name='dB(SPL)',add_symbol=False,
          description='sound pressure level in air')
  

  The conversion is defined here with:

  LogConversion(reference, multiplier, log_base, log_func, offset=0)
  

  so that the conversion to the LogUnit from the reference unit is given by:

  multiplier*log_func(x/reference) + offset
  

  and the conversion back is given by:

  reference*log_base**(x - offset)/multiplier
  

  gummys with a LogUnit may only be added or subtrated from gummys with that same unit. gummys with a LogUnit may only be multiplied or divided by gummys with a linear unit.

• class metrolopy.OffsetUnit: Generated units with an offset origin (degree Celsius or degree Fahrenheit). For example:

  OffsetUnit('degree Fahrenheit', '\u00B0F', OffsetConversion('degR',459.67),
           latex_symbol='^{\circ}F' ,ascii_symbol='degF', add_symbol=True,
           description='unit of temperature')
  

  The conversion is defined with:

  OffsetConversion(unit, offset)
  

  where unit must be linear unit (with not offset origin) that differs from the OffsetUnit only by the offset. In addition to the OffsetUnit, an _IntervalUnit is generated which has name equal to the OffsetUnit name with ‘ interval’ appended and ‘-i’ appended to the short name or symbol alias. The _IntervalUnit appears when OffsetUnits are subtracted or when an OffsetUnit is used in a _CompositeUnit. A gummy with an OffsetUnit may be added to another quanitity only if that quaitiy is a gummy with the corresponding _IntervalUnit.

• class metrolopy._CompositeUnit: Represents a derived unit made up of several Unit (or Unit sub-class) instances combined.

• class metrolopy._One: The instance of this class one represents the number 1 and is the default unit for a gummy. Dimensionless units are defined as any Unit where a conversion to one exists.

class jummy

class metrolopy.jummy(real=None,imag=None,r=None,phi=None,cov=None,unit=one

A jummy object represents a complex valued quantity with gummy real and imaginary components. See the immy class in the autogenerated docs for a class with ummy real and imaginary components.

jummy parameters

• real,imag,r,phi: (float or gummy) The value may be specified in either Cartesian coordinates using the real and imag parameters or polar coordinates with the r and phi parameters. The pair real, imag or r, phi may both be gummy or both be float. If they are float then cov and unit may also be specified.

• cov: (2 x 2 list, tuple or numpy.ndarray of float) The variance-covariance matrix for either the pair real, imag or the pair r, phi.

• unit: (str or Unit or list or tuple, or numpy.ndarray of length 2 of str or Unit) Units for real, imag or r, phi. In the case that real and imag are specified with different units, there must exist a conversion between the two units. Units for phi must be dimensionless.

jummy properties

• x: (read-only) returns complex(jummy.real.x,jummy.imag.x)

• cov: (read-only) returns the variance-covariance matrix between jummy.real and jummy.imag

• real: (read-only) a gummy representing the real part of the value

• imag: (read-only) a gummy representing the imaginary part of the value

• unit: Gets or sets the units of jummy.real and jummy.imag. If the units of jummy.real are different from jummy.imag then a tuple of Unit and length 2 is returned. Otherwise a Unit instance is returned.

jummy methods

In addition to the methods below, the gummy class display methods can also be used with the jummy class

• conjugate(): returns the (jummy valued) complex conjugate

• angle() returns a gummy representing Arg(jummy)

• copy(self,formatting=True): Returns a copy of the jummy. If the formatting parameter is True the display formatting information will be copied and if False the display formatting will be set to the default for a new jummy.

• classmethod apply(function, derivative, arg1, arg2, …): A classmethod that applies a function to one or more jummy objects propagating the uncertainty.

  apply parameters:

  • function: The the function to be applied. The function should take one or more float or complex arguments and return a float or complex value.

  • derivative: The name of a second function that gives the derivatives with respect to the arguments of function. derivative should take an equal number of arguments as function. If function takes one argument derivative should return a float and if function takes more than one argument then derivative should return a tuple, list or numpy.ndarray of float that contains the derivatives with respect to each argument. The derivatives with respect to each argument may be real or complex values, in which case function is assumed to be holomorphic. Or the derivative may be a 2 x 2 matrix of the form:

    [[ du/dx, du/dy ],
     [ dv/dx, dv/dy ]]
    

    where function(x + jy) = u + jv.

  • arg1, arg2, …**: One or more arguments to which function will be applied. These arguments need not all be jummy objects; arguments such as floats will be taken to be constants with no uncertainty. They may also be numpy.ndarrays in which case the usual numpy broadcasting rules apply.

  apply returns: If none of the arguments arg1, arg2, … are gummy or jummy then the return value is the same type as the return value of function. Otherwise apply returns either a gummy or a jummy depending on whether function has a float or a complex return value.

• classmethod napply(function, arg1, arg2, …): A classmethod that applies a function to one or more jummy objects propagating the uncertainty. This method is similar to jummy.apply except that the derivatives are computed numerically so a derivative function does not need to be supplied.

curve fitting

class Fit

class metrolopy.Fit(x, y=None, f=None, p0=None, ux=None, uy=None, sigma_is_known=True, xunit=None, yunit=None, solver=None, maxiter=None, nprop=False, **keywords)

A class for performing non-linear fitting. The fit function may be passed in the parameter f or may be specified by sub-classing Fit and overriding the f method.

Fit parameters

All parameters except x are optional

• x: The x-coordinates of the data. This is a list or numpy.ndarray of floats or gummys (all point must be of the same type, floats and gummys may not be mixed). The x-coordinates may be one dimensional or may be multi-dimensional. For d-dimensional coordinates with (with N total data points) this parameter should be of the form:

  [[x1[1], x1[2], ... , x1[N]],
   [x2[1], x2[2], ... , x2[N]],
   .
   .
   .
   [xd[1], xd[2], ... , xd[N]]]
  

  If gummys are given, then the must be dimensionless unless the get_puints method is implemented in a subclass.

• y: The y-coordinates of the data (shape and type requirements are the same as for the x-coordinates). This may be omitted only if the odr solver is used.

• f: The fit function. For d dimensional x-coordinates and k fit parameters it should be of the form f(x1,x2,…,xd,p1,p2,…,pk) and return a float or (if y is multi-dimensional) a list or array of floats. This parameter is required unless the f method is overridden in a subclass.

• p0: (list or numpy.ndarray of float) The inital values for the fit parameters. This parameter is required unless the get_p0 method is overridden in a subclass.

• ux: (float or list or numpy.ndarray of float) Uncertainty in the x values. This should not be specified if the x argument contains gummys. If ux is specified then only the odr solver may be used. The default is None.

• uy: (float or list or numpy.ndarray of float) Uncertainty in the y values. This should not be specified if the y argument contains gummys. The default is None.

• sigma_is_known: (bool) If this is True then any uncertainties in the data (either as gummys in the x or y values or in the ux or uy parameters) are used to calculate the uncertainties in the fit. Otherwise, the uncertainties are based on the standard deviation of the residuals and the uncertainties in the data are used only for weighting the data points. This parameter is ignored if nprop is True.

• xunits, yunits (str, default None) units for the x and y coordinates. These should not be specified if the x and y parameters contain gummys. These may only be specified if the get_punits method is overridden in a subclass.

• solver: ({‘nls’ , ‘odr’, None}) If solver = ‘nls’ then scipy.optimize.leastsq is used to perform the fit. If solver = ‘odr’ then scipy.odr is used. ‘nls’ may not be used if the y-coordinate is None or multi-dimensional or if there is uncertainty in the x-coordinates. If this is None, then ‘nls’ will be used when possible. Any keyword parameters not recognized by Fit will be passed to the solver.

• maxiter: (int) The maximum number of iterations that the solver may use. f this is None or omitted then the default value for the solver will be used.

• nprop: (bool, default False) If this is True then uncertainties in the fit will be numerically calculated by varying each data point. This will not work if there are more than a few data points or if the fit is not very stable. If this is False than the covariance matrix generated by the solver will be used to calculate the uncertainties.

• other keywords: Any additional keyword parameters will be passed to the solver.

Fit properties

• p: (read-only, list of gummy) The fitted values for the fit function parameters as correlated gummys

• pf: (read-only, list of float) The fitted values for the fit function parameters as floats

• res: (read-only, numpy.ndarray of float ) the fit residuals

• s: (read-only,float) the standard deviation (or, when there are uncertainties for the input data, the square root of the reduced chi-squared) of the residuals

• cov: (read-only, numpy.ndarray) the covariance matrix generated by the solver

• fit_output: (read-only) the raw output of the solver

• x: (read-only, numpy.ndarray of float or of gummy) numpy array of the x-coordinates of the data.

• xf: (read-only, numpy.ndarray of float) numpy array of the x-coordinates of the data as floats

• xdim: (read-only,int) the dimension of the x-coordinates

• ux: (read-only, float, numpy.ndarray of float or None): uncertainties in the x-coordinates

• y: (read-only, numpy.ndarray of float or of gummy) numpy array of the y-coordinates of the data.

• yf: (read-only, numpy.ndarray of float) numpy array of the yx-coordinates of the data as floats

• ydim: (read-only,int) the dimension of the y-coordinates

• uy: (read-only, float, numpy.ndarray of float or None): uncertainties in they-coordinates

• count: (read-only, int) the number of data points

• p0: (read-only, list of float) The initial values for the fit function parameters

• solver: (read-only, str) the solver used

• punits: (read-only, list of Unit) the units of the fit parameters

• nparam: (read-only, int) the number of fit parameters

Fit methods

• ypred(x1,x2,…): Takes xdim floats and returns a gummy representing the predicted value at that x-coordinate.

• ypredf(x1,x2,…): Takes xdim floats and returns a float giving the predicted value at that x-coordinate.

• plot(data_format=’ko’, data_options={}, show_data=True, error_bars=True, error_bar_k=1, fit_format=’k-’, fit_options={}, show_fit=True, cik=None, cip=None, ciformat=’g-’, cioptions={}, clk=None, clp=None, clformat=’r-’, cloptions = {}, xmin=None, xmax=None, xlabel=None, ylabel=None, hold=False, plot_points=None): plots the data (only available if x and y are one-dimensional)

  plot parameters (all parameters are optional):

  • data_format: (str) The format string passed to pyplot.plot or pyplot.errorbar when plotting the data points. The default is ‘ko’.

  • data_options: (dict) A dictionary containg key words that are passed to pyplot.plot or pyplot.errorbar when plotting the data points.

  • show_data: (bool) Whether or not to plot the data points. The default is True.

  • error_bars: (bool) Whether or not to plot error bars on the data points (if uncertainty values were defined for the data). The default is True.

  • error_bar_k: (float or int) Coverage factor for the error bars. The length of the error bars are determined by multiplying the standard uncertainty for each data point by this quantity. The default value is 1.

  • fit_format: (str) The format string passed to pyplot.plot or pyplot.errorbar when plotting the fitted curve. The default is ‘k-‘.

  • fit_options: (dict) A dictionary containg key words that are passed to pyplot.plot or pyplot.errorbar when plotting the fitted curve.

  • show_fit: (bool) Whether or not to plot the fitted curve. The default is True.

  • xmin and xmax: (float) The lower and upper limits of the fitted, confidence interval and control limit curves. If this is None, the limits are equal to x1 +/- (x2 - x1)*Fit.over_plot where x1 is the x value of the first data point, x2 is the x value of the last data point and Fit.over_plot is an attribute of the Fit object with default value 0.05.

  • xlabel and ylabel: (str) Labels for the x and y axes. If units are defined for the x or y axes, the unit symbol will be added to the end of the labels defined here. If these are set to None, then the values of the Fit.xlabel and Fit.ylabel attributes will be used. The default is None.

  • plot_points: (int) The number of points to use in each curve when plotting the fit, confidence interval, and control limit curves. If this is set to None, then the value of the Fit.plot_points attribute will be used, which has a default value of 100.

  • hold: (bool) If hold is False then pyplot.show() is executed just before this function returns.

  • cik: (float or None) Coverage factor for the uncertainty bands in the plot. If cik and cip are None ( the default values) then uncertainty bands will not be shown. Do not specify both cik and cip.

  • cip: (float or None) Confidence level for the uncertainty bands in the plot. If cik and cip are None ( the default values) then uncertainty bands will not be shown. Do not specify both cik and cip.

  • ciformat: (str, default is ‘g-’) Format string passes to the pyplot.plot command that plots the uncertainty bands.

  • cioptions: (dict) Keywork options passed to the pyplot.plot command that plots the uncertainty bands.

  • clk,clp,clformat, and cloptions: Control limit options, same as above for the uncertainty bands. The control limit band is the control limit coverage factor multiplied by the RSS of the fit uncertainty and the standard deviation of the residuals.

Fit abstract methods

These methods may be overridden when sub-classing Fit

• f(self,x1,x2,…,xd,p1,p2,…,pk): The fit function. The function to fit. It must either have signature f(self,x,p1,p2,…,pn) where there are p1 to pn are the n fit parameters and the independent variable x has one dimension, or f(self,x1,x2,…,xm,p1,p2,…,pn) where the independent variable x has m dimensions at each observation. f should return either a float or a 1-d array of floats depending on the dimension of the response variable y.

• jac(self,x1,x2,…,xk,p1,p2,…,pk): The Jacobian. This method may optionally be overridden in a derived class. If not overridden, this method throws a NotImplementedError() the derivatives will be calculated numerically.

  It must have the same signature as the f method and return a list of derivatives of the form:

  [df/dx1,df/dx2,...,df/dp1,df/dp2,...]
  

  if f returns a scalar or:

  [[df1/dx1,df1/dx2,...,df1/dp1,df1/dp2,...],
   [df2/dx1,df2/dx2,...,df2/dp1,df2/dp2,...],...]
  

  if f returns a 1-d array [f1,f2,…].

• get_p0(self): Returns an initial guess for the fit parameters based on the input x and y data. This is not required, but if it is not implemented then the p0 parameter is a required parameter for the init method.

• get_punits(self): Returns a list units for the fit parameters. This is not required, but if it is not implemented then only float values or dimensionless gummys may be as the x and y parameters and the xunit and yunit parameters to the init method may not be used.

• funicode(self), flatex(self), fhtml(self): Returns a str containing unicode, latex, and html representations of the fit function.

sub-classes of Fit for some common functions

• metrolopy.PolyFit(x, y, deg=1, p0=None, ux=None, uy=None, sigma_is_known=True, xunit=None, yunit=None, solver=None, maxiter=None, nprop=False, **keywords): Fits the x, y data to a polynomial. In addition to the parameters for Fit, PolyFit takes the parameter deg which is the degree of the polynomial. The solver parameter can take the string 'ols' in addition to the ‘odr’ and ‘nls’ solvers defined by class Fit. A linear fit algorithm, ols, will be used by default if x and y are one dimensional and there is no uncertainty in the x-values. The odr solver must be used if there is uncertainty in the x-values or if the y-coordinates are multi-dimensional. By the nonlinear least squares solver, nls, will be used by if x is multi-dimensional. Initial values p0 may be specified if the nls or odr solvers are used, but are not required. Both the x and y data may have units.

• metrolopy.SinFit(x, y, p0=None, ux=None, uy=None, sigma_is_known=True, xunit=None, yunit=None, solver=None, maxiter=None, nprop=False, **keywords): Fits the x,y data to a function of the form:

  p[0]*sin(p[1]*x + p[2]) + p[3]
  

  See the Fit class for the parameters, properties and methods of this class. This class is pretty good at guessing initial parameters.

• metrolopy.ExpFit(x, y, p0=None, ux=None, uy=None, sigma_is_known=True, xunit=None, yunit=None, solver=None, maxiter=None, nprop=False, **keywords): Fits the x,y data to a function of the form:

  p[0]*exp(x/p[1]) + p[2]
  

  See the Fit class for the parameters, properties and methods of this class.

• metrolopy.DoubleExpFit(x, y, p0=None, ux=None, uy=None, sigma_is_known=True, xunit=None, yunit=None, solver=None, maxiter=None, nprop=False, **keywords): Fits the x,y data to a function of the form:

  p[0]*exp(x/p[1]) + p[2]*exp(x/p[3]) + p[4]
  

  See the Fit class for the parameters, properties and methods of this class.

• metrolopy.OneOverTFit(x, y, p0=None, ux=None, uy=None, sigma_is_known=True, xunit=None, yunit=None, solver=None, maxiter=None, nprop=False, **keywords): Fits the x,y data to a function of the form:

  p[0]/x + p[1]
  

  See the Fit class for the parameters, properties and methods of this class.